The Social Costs of Pornography: A Collection of Papers Read online

  Roger Scruton is a writer, philosopher, and public commentator. In July 2009 he became an Adjunct Scholar of the American Enterprise Institute in Washington, DC. Prior to that, Professor Scruton was Research Professor for the Institute for the Psychological Sciences. He is also a Fellow of Blackfriars Hall in Oxford. Professor Scruton has specialized in aesthetics, with particular attention to music and architecture. He engages in contemporary political and cultural debates from the standpoint of a conservative thinker. Professor Scruton’s two new books published in 2009 are Beauty (Oxford University Press) and Understanding Music (Continuum International).

  James R. Stoner, Jr., is Professor of Political Science at Louisiana State University, where he has taught since 1988; he chairs the Department of Political Science, and is serving as Acting Dean in the Honors College, where he is also the 2010 Sternberg Professor. He is the author of Common Law and Liberal Theory: Coke, Hobbes, and the Origins of American Constitutionalism (University Press of Kansas, 1992) and Common-Law Liberty: Rethinking American Constitutionalism (University Press of Kansas, 2003), as well as a number of articles and essays. With Samuel Gregg, Professor Stoner co-edited Rethinking Business Management: Examining the Foundations of Business Education (The Witherspoon Institute, 2008). He received his AB from Middlebury College in Vermont, and his MA and PhD degrees from Harvard. In academic year 2002–2003, Professor Stoner was a Visiting Fellow in the James Madison Program in American Ideals and Institutions at Princeton University. He served from 2002 to 2006 on the National Council on the Humanities. Professor Stoner is a senior fellow at the Witherspoon Institute.

  Hamza Yusuf is the co-founder of Zaytuna College, in Berkeley, California. He has been studying and teaching classical Islamic disciplines for over thirty years and is recognized as a leading proponent of interreligious tolerance and respect. Mr. Yusuf is a co-president of Religions for Peace. He was also a special adviser to the United Nations Alliance of Civilizations, and one of the original thirtyeight scholars who sent an Open Letter to His Holiness, Pope Bernedict XVI. Mr. Yusuf is licensed to teach in several subjects in the classical Islamic curriculum and has been a student of Shaykh Abdallah bin Bayyah, who is one of the greatest living authorities in both Islamic jurisprudence and legal theory as well as the Arabic language. He serves as an adviser in Stanford University’s Program in Islamic Studies as well as Berkeley’s Graduate Theological Union Islamic Studies Program. Mr. Yusuf ’s books include Purification of the Heart, The Content of Character, The Creed of Imam al-Tahawi, and Agenda to Change Our Condition. He resides in the Greater Bay Area of California with his wife and five children.

  APPENDIX : SELECTED RESEARCH FINDINGS

  Compiled by Mary Anne Layden

  The Butner Study Redux: A report of the incidence of hands-on child victimization by child pornography offenders

  Subjects were 155 imprisoned child pornography offenders. Information known at the time of sentencing was compared with information known at the end of their treatment program in prison. At the time of sentencing, 115 (74%) subjects didn’t have any documented hands-on victims. The number of victims known at the time of sentencing was 75, or an average of 1.88 (SD=1.88) victims per offender. By the end of treatment, 24 (15%) subjects denied they had committed hands-on sexual abuse, and 131 subjects (85%) admitted they had at least one hands-on sexual offense, a 59% increase in the number of subjects with known hands-on offenses. The number of reported victims known at the end of treatment, among all offenders, was 1,777, an average of 13.56 (SD=30.11) victims per offender. When analyzed separately, we found that the 40 subjects who had known histories of hands-on sexual offending at the time of sentencing disclosed an average of 19.4 victims during their treatment period. In comparison, the 115 subjects with no known histories of these crimes ultimately disclosed an average of 8.7 victims.

  In fact, of the 24 subjects in our sample who denied they had committed a hands-on offense at the end of treatment, nine were polygraphed, and only two “passed.” In other words, less than 2% of subjects who entered treatment without known hands-on offenses were verified to be “just pictures” cases. It is noteworthy that both of these offenders remarked that while they had not molested a child prior to their arrest for the instant offense, with access and opportunity they would have been at risk for engaging in hands-on molestation. This calls into question whether it is pragmatically, not to mention theoretically, useful to discriminate between “child pornographers” and “child abusers” or even “pedophiles.”

  Bourke, Michael, and Andres Hernandez. “The Butner Study Redux: A Report of the Incidence of Hands-On Child Victimization by Child Pornography Offenders.” Journal of Family Violence 24 (2009): 183–191.

  Exposure to sexually explicit websites (SEWs) and adolescent sexual attitudes and behaviors

  Adolescents exposed to sexually explicit websites (SEWs) were more likely to have multiple lifetime sexual partners, to have had more than one sexual partner in the last three months, to have used alcohol or other substances at last sexual encounter, and to have engaged in anal sex. Adolescents who visit SEWs display higher sexual permissiveness scores compared with those who never have been exposed, indicating a more permissive attitude.

  Braun-Courville, Debra, and Mary Rojas. “Exposure to Sexually Explicit Web Sites and Adolescent Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors.” Journal of Adolescent Health 45 (2009): 156–162.

  X-rated sexual attitudes and behaviors associated with US early adolescents’ exposure to sexually explicit media

  Correlates of use and subsequent sexual attitudes and behaviors predicted by exposure to sexually explicit content (i.e., pornography and erotica) in adult magazines, X-rated movies, and the internet were examined in a prospective survey of a diverse sample of early adolescents (average age at baseline = 13.6 years; N = 967). Longitudinal analyses showed that early exposure for males predicted less progressive gender role attitudes, more permissive sexual norms, more sexual harassment perpetration, and having oral sex and sexual intercourse two years later. Early exposure for females predicted subsequently less progressive gender role attitudes, and having oral sex and sexual intercourse.

  Brown, Jane, and Kelly L’Engle. “X-Rated: Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors Associated with U.S. Early Adolescents’ Exposure to Sexually Explicit Media.” Communication Research 36 (2009): 129–151.

  Sexualized innocence: Effects of magazine ads portraying adult women as sexy little girls

  Subjects were shown magazine ads that contained images of nature or adult sexy women or adult sexy women portrayed as little girls. They were then given the Child Sexual Abuse Myth Scale. There was more acceptance of child sexual abuse myths for those who saw the sexy women portrayed as little girls and for those who saw the sexy adult women when compared with those who saw nature images. In addition, the greater the acceptance of child sexual abuse myths, the more normal the subject thought it was to be attracted to young girls and the less concerned the subject was about women posed as young girls in various media.

  Machia, Marty, and Sharon Lamb. “Sexualized Innocence: Effects of Magazine Ads Portraying Adult Women as Sexy Little Girls.” Journal of Media Psychology 21, no.1 (2009): 15–24.

  “Boys will be boys” and other gendered accounts: An exploration of victims’ excuses and justifications for unwanted sexual contact and coercion

  One in five women who reveal an incident of sexual victimization excuse or justify their situation by suggesting that male sexual aggression is natural, normal within dating relationships, didn’t hurt anyone, is caused by outside factors such as alcohol, isn’t really rape unless there were physical injuries, or was the victim’s fault. In addition, only 19% of victims reported the incident to the police.

  Weiss, Karen. “ ‘Boys Will Be Boys’ and Other Gendered Accounts: An Exploration of Victims’ Excuses and Justifications for Unwanted Sexual Contact and Coercion.” Violence Against Women 15 (2009): 810–834.

  Generation XXX: Pornography ac
ceptance and use among emerging adults

  Almost two-thirds (67%) of young adult males find pornography use acceptable, while 49% of young adult females find it acceptable. More young adult males use pornography (87%) than do young adult females (31%). While 31% of males use pornography never or less than once a month, about 5% of males use pornography daily or almost daily. Young adult females use pornography infrequently; 69% never use it, 21% use it less than once a month, and only .2% use it daily or almost every day. For males, more pornography use is correlated with more sex partners, more alcohol use, more binge-drinking, greater acceptance of sex outside of marriage for married individuals, greater acceptance of sex before marriage, and less childcenteredness during marriage.

  Carroll, Jason, Laura Padilla-Walker, Larry Nelson, Chad Olson, Carolyn McNamara Barry, and Stephanie Madsen. “Generation XXX: Pornography Acceptance and Use Among Emerging Adults.” Journal of Adolescent Research 23, no.1 (2008): 6–30.

  Does watching sex on television predict teen pregnancy? Findings from a national longitudinal survey of youth

  Teens who were exposed to high levels of television sexual content (90th percentile) were twice as likely to experience pregnancy in the subsequent three years, compared with those with lower levels of exposure (10th percentile). Teens’ base rate of media consumption was measured when they were 12–17 years old, and the outcome measures were taken when they were 15–20 years old.

  Chandra, Anita, Steven Martino, Rebecca Collins, Marc Elliott, Sandra Berry, David Kanouse, and Angela Miu. “Does Watching Sex on Television Predict Teen Pregnancy? Findings from a National Longitudinal Survey of Youth.” Pediatrics 122 (2008): 1047–1054.

  Pornography use and sexual aggression: The impact of frequency and type of pornography use on recidivism among sexual offenders

  In this study, we examined the unique contribution of pornography consumption to the longitudinal prediction of criminal recidivism in a sample of 341 child molesters. After controlling for general and specific risk factors for sexual aggression, pornography added significantly to the prediction of recidivism. Statistical interactions indicated that frequency of pornography use was primarily a risk factor for higher-risk offenders, when compared with lower-risk offenders, and that content of pornography (i.e., pornography containing deviant content) was a risk factor for all groups. For those who viewed deviant pornography, the predicted odds for criminal recidivism increased by 177%, the predicted odds for violent (including sexual) recidivism increased by 185%, and the predicted odds for sexual recidivism was 233%.

  Kingston, Drew, Paul Fedoroff, Philip Firestone, Susan Curry, and John Bradford. “Pornography Use and Sexual Aggression: The Impact of Frequency and Type of Pornography Use on Recidivism Among Sexual Offenders.” Aggressive Behavior 34, no. 4 (2008): 341–351.

  Linking male use of the sex industry to controlling behaviors in violent relationships

  Male domestic violence offenders who utilize the sex industry (pornography and strip clubs) use more controlling behaviors, and engage in more sexual abuse, stalking, and marital rape against their partners then do males who do not use the sex industry.

  Simmons, Catherine, Peter Lehmann, and Shannon Collier-Tenison. “Linking Male Use of the Sex Industry to Controlling Behaviors in Violent Relationships.” Violence Against Women 14 (2008): 406–417.

  The role of cognitive distortions in pedophilic offending: Internet and contact offenders compared

  Contrary to the expectation that contact offenders would have more cognitive distortions, it was found that internet offenders had more cognitive distortions that children are sexual beings.

  Howitt, Dennis, and Kerry Sheldon. “The Role of Cognitive Distortions in Paedophilic Offending: Internet and Contact Offenders Compared.” Psychology, Crime and Law 13, no. 5 (2007): 469–486.

  Adolescents’ exposure to a sexualized media environment and their notions of women as sex objects

  Exposure to sexually explicit online movies was significantly related to beliefs about women as sex objects for both male and female 13–18-year-old Dutch adolescents.

  Peter, Jochen, and Patti M. Valkenburg. “Adolescents’ Exposure to a Sexualized Media Environment and Their Notions of Women as Sex Objects.” Sex Roles 56 (2007): 381–395.

  Cross-sectional predictors of sexual assault perpetration in a community sample of single African American and Caucasian men

  Almost a quarter (24.5%) of men acknowledged committing an act since the age of 14 who met standard legal definitions of attempted or completed rape; an additional 39% had committed another type of sexual assault involving forced sexual contact or verbal coercion. The number of sexual assaults perpetrated by participants was associated with the effects of childhood sexual abuse, adolescent delinquency, alcohol problems, sexual dominance, positive attitudes about casual sexual relationships, and pressure from peers to engage in sexual relationships. Additionally, empathy buffered the relationship between sexual dominance and perpetration so that the greater the empathy the males showed the less likely they were to engage in perpetration at each level of sexual dominance. Of the 40 subjects whose behavior met the legal definition of rape or attempted rape, only 5 called it rape.

  Abbey, Antonia, Michele Parkhill, Renee BeShears, A. Monique Clinton-Sherrod, and Tina Zawacki. “Cross-Sectional Predictors of Sexual Assault Perpetration in a Community Sample of Single African American and Caucasian Men.” Aggressive Behavior 32 (2005): 54–67.

  Use of pornography and self-reported engagement in sexual violence among adolescents

  Reading and viewing pornographic material (magazines, comics, films, and videos) was linked to perpetrating sexual violence (both sexual harassment and forced sex) for both male and female adolescents. Reading and viewing pornographic material was linked to being a victim of sexual violence (both sexual harassment and forced sex) for female adolescents. Reading and viewing pornographic material was linked to being the victim of forced sex for male adolescents.

  Bonino, Silvia, Silvia Ciairano, Emanuela Rabaglietti, and Elena Cattelino. “Use of Pornography and Self-Reported Engagement in Sexual Violence Among Adolescents.” European Journal of Developmental Psychology 3, no. 3 (2006): 265–288.

  Exhibitionistic and voyeuristic behavior in a Swedish national population survey

  In a Swedish survey of 2,450 randomly selected 18–60-year-olds, 3% reported at least one incident of exhibitionistic behavior; 8% reported at least one incident of voyeuristic behavior. Both exhibitionism and voyeurism were correlated to increased pornography use. Both exhibitionists and voyeurs had an increased likelihood of engaging in other atypical sexual behaviors such as sadomasochism or crossdressing. Exhibitionists and voyeurs showed increased sexual fantasies that mirrored their behavior, but they also showed an increase in sexual fantasies in other atypical sexual behaviors as well. While exhibitionists had more exhibitionistic sexual fantasies than did voyeurs or normals, they also had more voyeuristic sexual fantasies than did normals. Voyeurs had more voyeuristic sexual fantasies than exhibitionists or normals, but they also had more exhibitionist sexual fantasies than did normals.

  Långström, Niklas, and Michael C. Seto. “Exhibitionistic and Voyeuristic Behavior in a Swedish National Population Survey.” Archives of Sexual Behavior 35 (2006): 427–435.

  The mass media are an important context for adolescents’ sexual behavior

  The media that teenagers watch has a high level of sexual content. The majority of sexual content in the media depicts risk-free, recreational sexual behavior between non-married people. Adolescents who are exposed to more sexual content in the media, and who perceive greater support from the media for teen sexual behavior, report greater intentions to engage in sexual intercourse and more sexual activity.

  L’Engle, Kelly Ladin, Jane Brown, and Kristin Kenneavy. “The Mass Media Are an Important Context for Adolescents’ Sexual Behavior.” Journal of Adolescent Health 38, no. 4 (2006): 186–192.

  Child por
nography offenses are a valid diagnostic indicator of pedophilia

  Individuals who have been charged with a child pornography offense and have offended against children and individuals who have been charged with a child pornography offense and have not offended against children are more likely to be pedophiles than individuals who have offended against adults or individuals who have offended against children but who do not use child pornography. Therefore, being charged with a child pornography offense is a better indicator of who might get the diagnosis of pedophilia than having sexually molested a child.

  Seto, Michael C., James Cantor, and Ray Blanchard. “Child Pornography Offenses Are a Valid Diagnostic Indicator of Pedophilia.” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 115, no. 3 (2006): 610–615.

  Transvestic fetishism in the general population: Prevalence and correlates

  In a Swedish survey of 2,450 randomly selected 18–60-year-olds, 3% reported having at least one incident of transvestic fetishism. Transvestic fetishism was found to correlate with increased pornography use. Transvestic fetishism was strongly related to experiences of sexual arousal from using pain, spying on others having sex, and exposing one’s genitals to a stranger.

  Långström, Nicklas, and Kenneth Zucker. “Transvestic Fetishism in the General Population: Prevalence and Correlates.” Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy 31 (2005): 87–95.

  Pornified

  At the 2003 meeting of the American Academy of Matrimonial Lawyers, a gathering of the nation’s divorce lawyers, attendees documented a startling trend. Nearly two-thirds of the attorneys present had witnessed a sudden rise in divorces related to the internet; 58% of those were the result of a spouse looking at excessive amounts of pornography online.